B. MOTOR CONTROL & MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

The significance of motor control and motor skill development for continual enhancement of sport specific performance has been emphasised by a number of authors (3, 6, 17, 30, 38, 43, 58, 59). The practical application of exercise and sports movement advancement is seen to be in cohesion with improvements in skill acquisition for a number of reasons.

An initial understanding of skill acquisition components is necessary. A definition of a motor skill as stated by Magill (43) is “a skill that requires voluntary body and/or limb movement to achieve its goal”. Magill (43) also states a definition of a movement as being “a behavioural characteristic of specific limbs or a combination of limbs that are component parts of an action or motor skill”.

When a number of movements are combined they comprise a particular complex motor skill. Magill (43) emphasises the fact that two individuals may have a different specific ability in a number of movements yet they are both able to perform a high level of skill in a sports specific action. An example may be a golf swing, a walking pattern or a tennis serve. Athletes will use a different combination of movement strategies based on their individual strengths and weaknesses across a range of complex physical abilities to produce an action, emphasising the requirement of a coach to understand that skills and sporting actions are highly complex and may be affected by many movement variables. Magill (43) mentioned that movement performed to throw a ball may differ between individuals but reach the same objective, where different characteristics between individuals could be attributed to physical features that limit or enhance skill performance. 

The significance of this explanation is the plethora of noted functional components, which can and will affect an individual’s movement quality. This further emphasises the fact that exercise prescription is required to be based around movement competencies, as prescription emphasising only individual muscle force is not considering a range of factors effecting a movement or sporting action (13, 17, 37, 43, 58, 59).

Individual differences may be derived from specific characteristics of the body, limb, and/or muscle activity, such as kinetic, kinematic, and electromyographic measures (43). Kreighbaum et al. (37) noted that a skilled performer develops the ability to synchronize motor unit firing at an appropriate instant to produce a well-timed forceful movement. Kreighbaum et al. (37) also stated that an unskilled performer may have unconventional erratic motor unit recruitment behavior and subsequently lose coordinated movement.

Voight et al. (59) presented a specific explanation of motor skill acquisition where it was stated that training to enhance rehabilitative protocols and sports specific abilities should initiate with a training program of simple activities and progress to more highly complex motor skills requiring a refinement of neuromuscular mechanisms including proprioceptive and kinesthetic awareness. They stated the importance of the clinician establishing an understanding of the way in which the central nervous system influences motor control. They noted that a myriad of mechanoreceptors offer a reflexive facilitation or inhibition function for motor neurons. This mechanism is responsible for antagonistic and synergistic patterns of muscle contraction.

Tompsett et al. (58) reported findings that noted movement characteristics for skills may be kinetic or kinematic variables such as velocity, displacement, joint angle, torque, or electromyographical characteristics. Tompsett et al. (58) noted that motor skills could be compartmentalised into abilities required for successful skill delivery or sporting skill such as speed of movement, manual dexterity, reaction time, control precision, and multi-limb coordination.

Cook (17) offered an explanation into a range of factors that are involved with the way that movement is produced. Cook (17) discussed mechanisms of joint function with the joint capsule, where soft tissues and surrounding muscles offer stability, and the larger muscles around the joint produce movement. Cook (17) noted there is an extremely complex communication system around the joint, where all structures work together, monitoring and adapting to tension and load, as well as speed of direction and position. An array of tissues combine to offer sensory information to allow for proper movement, where all this occurs as reflexive activity, which does not require conscious thought. The joint and muscles function automatically and in unison to make movement efficient. Cook (17) also stated that when the body does not function optimally, through tightness / weakness / instability / stiffness, the sensory information is changed where automatic reactions are distorted. This can decrease performance, increase fatigue, and expose the body to unnecessary stress.

Chek (13) provided a view following the notion of complexity of movement also presented by Cook (17). He noted that to ensure joint, tendon, and muscle safety, the body has a system of neuromuscular and neuromechanical receptors located throughout joints, tendons, and muscles. If the exercises used in the training environment neglect to properly prepare the static and dynamic stabiliser systems, faulty joint motion during standing functional exercises is almost inevitable.

Aside from pure physical characteristics, it should also be noted that numerous professionals stated that other variables might affect an individual’s movement quality. Overdorf (47) listed a number of citations that stated ‘perception’ of competence as being a major factor for continual engagement in physical activity. Sporting movement success occurs with training overtime, where perception and confidence in movement ability lead to further engagement in motor skill practice. Tompsett et al. (58) noted that major contributors to physical literacy may be frustration and fear of failure with competitive environments creating avoidance strategies with children. Tompsett et al. (58) also noted “motor development is also influenced by exposure to movement demands, adequate instruction, and social and genetic factors”.

The above evidence demonstrates the complexity of sports actions and the factors that can effect ideal movement execution and FMD. Development of force, timing of multiple muscle actions at differing degrees over different joints, soft tissue components, receptive feedback mechanisms, positional awareness, and individual psychology are a range of factors which must be considered to have a potential effect on an individual’s movement quality.